Sabine Hildebrandt is an Instructor in Pediatrics at Boston Children’s Hospital and a Lecturer on Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School. Her research interests are the history and ethics of anatomy, specifically the history of anatomy in National Socialist Germany. Her publications and presentations in this area have contributed to the realization of a first German symposium on anatomy in National Socialism in 2010. She is an associate member of the ethics commission of the Anatomische Gesellschaftand has contributed to its recent official statement on the history of anatomy in National Socialism. She continues to develop her educational work that integrates anatomy, medical history and medical ethics.
Research Background
Dr. Hildebrandt received her medical degree from Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany, in 1984. After an early training in experimental rheumatology she embarked on a career in anatomical education. Before joining Boston Children’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School in 2013, she taught anatomy at the Division of Anatomical Sciences, Department of Medical Education/University of Michigan Medical School.
Selected Publications
Hildebrandt S. Capital Punishment and Anatomy: History and Ethics of an Ongoing Association. Clin Anat. 2008;21(1):5-14.
Hildebrandt S. Anatomy in the Third Reich: An Outline, Part 1. National Socialist Politics, Anatomical Institutions, and Anatomists. Clin Anat. 2009;22(8):883-893.
Hildebrandt S. Anatomy in the Third Reich: An Outline, Part 2. Bodies for Anatomy and Related Medical Disciplines. Clin Anat. 2009;22(8):894-905.
Hildebrandt S. Anatomy in the Third Reich: An Outline, Part 3. The Science and Ethics of Anatomy in National Socialist Germany and Postwar Consequences. Clin Anat. 2009;22(8):906-915.
Bohl M, Bosch P, Hildebrandt S. Medical students’ perceptions of the body donor as a “First patient” or “Teacher”: A Pilot Study. Anat Sci Educ. 2011;4(4):208-213.
Hildebrandt S. Anatomy in the Third Reich: Careers Disrupted by National Socialist Policies. Ann Anat. 2012;194(3):251-266.
Bohl M, Holman A, Mueller DA, Gruppen LD, Hildebrandt S. The Willed Body Donor Interview Project: Medical student and donor expectations. Anat Sci Educ. 2013;6(2):90-100
Hildebrandt S. The Women on Stieve’s list: Victims of National Socialism Whose Bodies Were Used for Anatomical Research. Clin Anat. 2013;26(1):3-21.
Hildebrandt S. Research on Bodies of the Executed in German Anatomy: An Accepted Method that Changed During the Third Reich. Study of Anatomical Journals from 1924 to 1951. Clin Anat. 2013;26(3):304-326.
Hildebrandt S. Current Status of Identification of Victims of the National Socialist Regime Whose Bodies Were Used for Anatomical Purposes. Clin Anat. 2014;27(4)514-536.
Publications
Pernkopf was not alone: the Nazi origins of the Spalteholz-Spanner atlas. Lancet. 2024 Nov 16; 404(10466):1921-1922. View Abstract
More Than Body Parts: A New Ethos of Anatomy Education. Acad Med. 2024 Oct 11. View Abstract
Contemporary ethical standards and the presence of exhibitors at anatomy conferences. Anat Sci Educ. 2024 Oct; 17(7):1513-1515. View Abstract
Journal recommended guidelines for systematic review and meta-analyses. Anat Sci Educ. 2024 Oct; 17(7):1392-1395. View Abstract
Ethical considerations on the international transfer of donated bodies and body parts. Anat Sci Educ. 2024 Jun; 17(4):909-911. View Abstract
American Association for Anatomy recommendations for the management of legacy anatomical collections. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2024 Aug; 307(8):2787-2815. View Abstract
The history of the Vienna Protocol on dealing with Holocaust era human remains and its resonance with ethical considerations in African American bioarcheology. Am J Biol Anthropol. 2025 Jan; 186(1):e24918. View Abstract
The Lancet Commission on medicine, Nazism, and the Holocaust: historical evidence, implications for today, teaching for tomorrow. Lancet. 2023 11 18; 402(10415):1867-1940. View Abstract
Statement on the Lancet Commission on Medicine, Nazism, and the Holocaust. Lancet. 2023 11 18; 402(10415):1816-1817. View Abstract
Considerations on the use of artificial intelligence in generating anatomical images: Comment on "Evaluating AI-powered text-to-image generators for anatomical illustration: A comparative study". Anat Sci Educ. 2024 Jul-Aug; 17(5):1097-1099. View Abstract
IFAA recommendations for the ethical use of anatomical images. Anat Sci Educ. 2024 Jan-Feb; 17(1):7-10. View Abstract
Ethical concerns surrounding artificial intelligence in anatomy education: Should AI human body simulations replace donors in the dissection room? Anat Sci Educ. 2024 Jul-Aug; 17(5):937-943. View Abstract
A great betrayal: Indictment of morgue employee for allegedly selling human remains from the Harvard body donation program. Anat Sci Educ. 2023 Nov-Dec; 16(6):1009-1010. View Abstract
Personal autonomy and self-determination are crucial for professionalism in healthcare. Anat Sci Educ. 2023 Jul-Aug; 16(4):571-573. View Abstract
Anatomy From Nazi Germany to Today. JAMA. 2023 01 17; 329(3):207-208. View Abstract
Skeletons in the closet: time to give human bones acquired by health practitioners for educational purposes the respect they deserve. Med J Aust. 2022 10 03; 217(7):379. View Abstract
Racism, structural racism, and the American Association for Anatomy: Initial report from a task force. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2022 04; 305(4):772-787. View Abstract
The German Medical Association's hesitant dealing with the Nazi past. Lancet. 2021 10 30; 398(10311):1564-1565. View Abstract
Limited use of a Nazi-era anatomy atlas in the operating theater: Remembering the victims. Isr Med Assoc J. 2021 Sep; 23(9):605-606. View Abstract
An Excerpt from The Anatomy of Murder: Excerpted from the Section: "The Pernkopf Controversy" (pages 278 - 281, 287, 288). J Biocommun. 2021; 45(1):E6. View Abstract
Nerve Surgeons' Assessment of the Role of Eduard Pernkopf's Atlas of Topographic and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Practice. J Biocommun. 2021; 45(1):E7. View Abstract
Anatomy in Nazi Germany: The Use of Victims' Bodies in Academia and Present-Day Legacies. J Biocommun. 2021; 45(1):E12. View Abstract
Books, bones and bodies: The relevance of the history of anatomy in Nazi Germany for medical education today. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2022 04; 305(4):886-901. View Abstract
Announcing the Lancet Commission on Medicine and the Holocaust: Historical Evidence, Implications for Today, Teaching for Tomorrow. Lancet. 2021 03 06; 397(10277):862-864. View Abstract
Oral and maxillofacial surgeons' assessment of the role of Pernkopf's atlas in surgical practice. Ann Anat. 2021 Mar; 234:151614. View Abstract
Anatomy as a Model Environment for Acquiring Professional Competencies in Medicine: Experiences at Harvard Medical School. Anat Sci Educ. 2021 Mar; 14(2):241-251. View Abstract
"The Vienna Protocol: Medicine's confrontation with continuing legacies of its Nazi past,". Ann Anat. 2020 May; 229:151459. View Abstract
Anatomy, Education, and Ethics in a Changing World. Anat Sci Educ. 2019 Jul; 12(4):329-331. View Abstract
Nerve Surgeons' Assessment of the Role of Eduard Pernkopf's Atlas of Topographic and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Practice. Neurosurgery. 2019 02 01; 84(2):491-498. View Abstract
The Role of History and Ethics of Anatomy in Medical Education. Anat Sci Educ. 2019 Jul; 12(4):425-431. View Abstract
Letter to the Editor: Nazi Medicine-Part 2: The Downfall of a Profession and Pernkopf's Anatomy Atlas. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2018 12; 476(12):2465-2466. View Abstract
In Reply: Nerve Surgeons' Assessment of the Role of Eduard Pernkopf's Atlas of Topographic and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Practice. Neurosurgery. 2018 10 01; 83(4):E189. View Abstract
BODIES R US: Ethical Views on the Commercialization of the Dead in Medical Education and Research. Anat Sci Educ. 2019 May; 12(3):317-325. View Abstract
Ethical considerations in the use of Pernkopf's Atlas of Anatomy: A surgical case study. Surgery. 2019 05; 165(5):860-867. View Abstract
"Forgotten" Chapters in the History of Transcervical Sterilization: Carl Clauberg and Hans-Joachim Lindemann. J Hist Med Allied Sci. 2017 Jul 01; 72(3):272-301. View Abstract
Where do they come from? A call for complete transparency regarding the origin of human tissues in research. ESMO Open. 2017; 2(2):e000201. View Abstract
Alfred Pischinger (1899-1983): An Austrian career in anatomy continuing through National Socialism to postwar leadership. Ann Anat. 2017 May; 211:104-113. View Abstract
Strkalj G, Pather N (eds.): Commemoration and Memorials in Anatomy. Remembering the victims of abusive practice in anatomy: the example of Nazi Germany. 2017. View Abstract
The incompatibility of the use of unclaimed bodies with ethical anatomical education in the United States. Anat Sci Educ. 2017 03; 10(2):200-201. View Abstract
Cadaver Exome Sequencing for Teaching First-Year Medical Students. JAMA. 2016 Jul 05; 316(1):102-3. View Abstract
Insights into the Freiburg Anatomical Institute during National Socialism, 1933-1945. Ann Anat. 2016 May; 205:90-102. View Abstract
The Anatomy of Murder: Ethical Transgressions and Anatomical Science during the Third Reich. 2016; 374. View Abstract
Posthumous testimony for Dr. Leo Gross and his family: the restoration of the ‘lost’ biography of a physician victim of the Holocaust. Medizinhistorisches Journal,. 2016; (4):295-326. View Abstract
Posthumous Testimony for Dr. Leo Gross and his Family / Restoration of the 'Lost' Biography of a Physician Victim of the Holocaust Medizinhist J. 2016; 51(4):295-326. View Abstract
Thoughts on practical core elements of an ethical anatomical education. Clin Anat. 2016 Jan; 29(1):37-45. View Abstract
Public health in the Vilna Ghetto as a form of Jewish resistance. Am J Public Health. 2015 Feb; 105(2):293-301. View Abstract
Swedish-German contacts in the field of anatomy 1930-1950: Gösta Häggqvist and Hermann Stieve. Ann Anat. 2014 Sep; 196(5):259-67. View Abstract
What is happening in our anatomical dissection rooms? Clin Anat. 2014 Sep; 27(6):833-4. View Abstract
[The Herrlinger case: a controversy of ethics in anatomy and medical history]. Hist Hosp. 2014-2015; 29:447-65. View Abstract
Current status of identification of victims of the National Socialist regime whose bodies were used for anatomical purposes. Clin Anat. 2014 May; 27(4):514-36. View Abstract
Anatomische Gesellschaft from 1933 to 1950: a professional society under political strain - the Benninghoff papers. Ann Anat. 2013 Oct; 195(5):381-92. View Abstract
Wolfgang Bargmann (1906-1978) and Heinrich von Hayek (1900-1969): careers in anatomy continuing through German National Socialism to postwar leadership. Ann Anat. 2013 Jul; 195(4):283-295. View Abstract
The women on Stieve's list: Victims of national socialism whose bodies were used for anatomical research. Clin Anat. 2013 Jan; 26(1):3-21. View Abstract
[Anatomy in National Socialism: stages of an ethical transgression]. Medizinhist J. 2013; 48(2):153-85. View Abstract
The willed body donor interview project: medical student and donor expectations. Anat Sci Educ. 2013 Mar-Apr; 6(2):90-100. View Abstract
Commentary on "First hand accounts of events in the laboratory of Prof. Eduard Pernkopf" by S.H. Aharinejad and S.W. Carmichael. Clin Anat. 2013 Apr; 26(3):292-3. View Abstract
The case of Robert Herrlinger: a unique postwar controversy on the ethics of the anatomical use of bodies of the executed during National Socialism. Ann Anat. 2013 Jan; 195(1):11-24. View Abstract
Research on bodies of the executed in German anatomy: an accepted method that changed during the Third Reich. Study of anatomical journals from 1924 to 1951. Clin Anat. 2013 Apr; 26(3):304-26. View Abstract
The anatomist Hans Elias: A Jewish German in exile. Clin Anat. 2012 Apr; 25(3):284-94. View Abstract
Anatomy in the Third Reich: Careers disrupted by National Socialist Policies. Ann Anat. 2012 Jun; 194(3):251-66. View Abstract
Anatomy in the Third Reich. Ann Anat. 2012 Jun; 194(3):225-7. View Abstract
Medical students' perceptions of the body donor as a "first patient" or "teacher": a pilot study. Anat Sci Educ. 2011 Jul-Aug; 4(4):208-13. View Abstract
First symposium on "Anatomie im Nationalsozialismus" ("Anatomy in National Socialism"), Würzburg, Germany, September 29, 2010. Clin Anat. 2011 Jan; 24(1):97-100. View Abstract
The pattern of the thoracic splanchnic nerves as they pass through the diaphragm. Clin Anat. 2010 Sep; 23(6):732. View Abstract
Developing empathy and clinical detachment during the dissection course in gross anatomy. Anat Sci Educ. 2010 Jul-Aug; 3(4):216; author reply 217. View Abstract
Lessons to be learned from the history of anatomical teaching in the United States: the example of the University of Michigan. Anat Sci Educ. 2010 Jul-Aug; 3(4):202-12. View Abstract
Response to the commentary on "Anatomy in the Third Reich: An outline" by G. Aumüller and R. Hildebrand. Clin Anat. 2010 Mar; 23(2):242. View Abstract
Letter in response to Winkelmann and Schagen, Seidelman and Levi: call for a new era in research on "Medicine/Anatomy in the Third Reich". Clin Anat. 2010 Jan; 23(1):124. View Abstract
Anatomy in the Third Reich: an outline, part 3. The science and ethics of anatomy in National Socialist Germany and postwar consequences. Clin Anat. 2009 Nov; 22(8):906-15. View Abstract
Anatomy in the Third Reich: an outline, part 1. National Socialist politics, anatomical institutions, and anatomists. Clin Anat. 2009 Nov; 22(8):883-93. View Abstract
Anatomy in the Third Reich: an outline, part 2. Bodies for anatomy and related medical disciplines. Clin Anat. 2009 Nov; 22(8):894-905. View Abstract
The pattern of the thoracic splanchnic nerves as they pass through the diaphragm. Clin Anat. 2009 Oct; 22(7):809-14. View Abstract
Capital punishment and anatomy: history and ethics of an ongoing association. Clin Anat. 2008 Jan; 21(1):5-14. View Abstract
How the Pernkopf controversy facilitated a historical and ethical analysis of the anatomical sciences in Austria and Germany: a recommendation for the continued use of the Pernkopf atlas. Clin Anat. 2006 Mar; 19(2):91-100. View Abstract
A long-term longitudinal isotypic study of anti-topoisomerase I autoantibodies. Rheumatol Int. 1993; 12(6):231-4. View Abstract
Idiotypic analysis of human anticentromere autoantibodies. Autoimmunity. 1991; 9(2):131-40. View Abstract
Idiotypic analysis of human anti-topoisomerase I autoantibodies. Autoimmunity. 1991; 10(1):41-8. View Abstract
Prognostic significance of anticentromere antibodies and anti-topoisomerase I antibodies in Raynaud's disease. A prospective study. Arthritis Rheum. 1991 Jan; 34(1):68-77. View Abstract
Autoantibodies to topoisomerase I (Scl-70): analysis by gel diffusion, immunoblot, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1990 Dec; 57(3):399-410. View Abstract
The IgG, IgM, and IgA isotypes of anti-topoisomerase I and anticentromere autoantibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 1990 May; 33(5):724-7. View Abstract
Expression of CD 21, CD 22, and the mouse erythrocyte receptor on peripheral B lymphocytes in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1988 Jul; 47(7):588-94. View Abstract
[B-cell subpopulation, rosetting with mouse erythrocytes, in patients with rheumatoid arthritis]. Immun Infekt. 1986 Feb; 14(1):26-7. View Abstract